diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders online

diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders online

As described in the Privacy Policy and Terms of Use, this website utilizes cookies, including for the purpose of offering an optimal online experience and services tailored to your preferences.By closing this message, browsing this website, continuing the navigation, or otherwise continuing to use the APA's websites, you confirm that you understand and accept the terms of the Privacy Policy and Terms of Use, including the utilization of cookies. As described in the Privacy Policy and Terms of Use, this website utilizes cookies, including for the purpose of offering an optimal online experience and services tailored to your preferences.By closing this message, browsing this website, continuing the navigation, or otherwise continuing to use the APA's websites, you confirm that you understand and accept the terms of the Privacy Policy and Terms of Use, including the utilization of cookies.The criteria are concise and explicit, intended to facilitate an objective assessment of symptom presentations in a variety of clinical settings- inpatient, outpatient, partial hospital, consultation-liaison, clinical, private practice, and primary care. Read Our Privacy Policy Coding updates to the ICD-10-CM went in effect October 1, 2018. The content previously found on the DSM5.org website has been moved to psychiatry.org. Without javascript some functions will not work, including question submission via the form. You’ll be asked to log in using your USC ID and password. We will not share it. Report a tech support issue. Login to LibApps. This was a landmark achievement for the APA. Indian psychiatrists should take additional pride in the fact that Dr. Dilip V. Jeste is actually one of us. He used to be an Overseas Member of the Indian Psychiatric Society (IPS). HISTORY OF THE DSM Earliest documented efforts to gather epidemiological data on mental illness commenced in the USA in the year 1840.http://pilotgen.com/upload/bosch-precision-wfg2420-manual.xml

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Inaccurately defined categories of mental illness like mania, melancholia, monomania, general paralysis of the insane, dementia, and dipsomania were included in the US Census of 1880. In 1918, the American Medico-Psychological Association published a manual of classification of mental illnesses that listed 22 categories. The manual was designed for the use of Institutions for the Insane. The American Medico-Psychological Association was later renamed APA in 1921. The US Navy revised the Medical 203 to formulate the “Standard Classified Nomenclature of Disease” or the “Standard”. Office of the US Surgeon General adopted the Standard to classify illnesses on the battle grounds and among veterans returning from the war. The Veterans Administration adopted the Standard with few modifications. After the war, psychiatrist with experience of using the Standard during the Second World War continued to use it in civilian practice. The World Health Organization (WHO) included a chapter on Mental Disorders in its International classification of Diseases (ICD) 6 (1949). It resembled the Standard. In the year 1950, the APA set up a committee on nomenclature and statistics. It did not carry any number attached to its title. Authors of the manual had perhaps not envisaged that the manual would be revised periodically. The second edition (1968) was titled Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Second Edition. The trend of fixing a roman suffix to the newer editions of the DSM commenced with the third edition which was titled DSM III (1980). DSM III also pioneered the multiaxial system of evaluation and classification of mental disorders. A revised version was christened DSM III R (1987). This would facilitate subsequent revisions being numbered as 5.1, 5.2 and so forth. While facilitating the numbering, it is also a tacit acceptance that the DSM 5 is not the ultimate manual of classification of mental disorders.http://www.mecotech.fr/userfiles/bosch-pro-parquet-1800w-manual.xml

The DSM IV TR (2000) did not propose any substantial modifications to the doctrine of DSM IV (1994). The diagnostic criteria continued to result in rather frequent diagnosis of comorbidity. Heterogeneity within the diagnostic groups was unacceptable to the researchers and it contaminated treatment outcome. The erratic thresholds for inclusion and exclusion could not differentiate the normal from abnormal or syndromal from subsyndromal disorders. Clinicians would then resort to the not otherwise specified (NOS) diagnoses. The DSM IV did not consider emerging clinical conditions like addiction to the internet or the so called nocturnal refrigerator raids. It reflects the need for urgency and prominence of mental disorders. The planning conference included experts in family and twin studies, molecular genetics, basic and clinical neurosciences, cognitive and behavioral sciences, and covered issues in development throughout the lifespan and disability. The conference focused on issues like lacunae in the DSM IV system of classification, disability and impairment, newer insights from the research in neuroscience, need for improved nomenclature, and the impact of cross cultural issues. The thrust at the planning stage itself was to look beyond the DSM IV. Dr. David Kupfer, MD and Dr. Darrel A. Reiger led the team of more than 397 participants working in 13 work groups, six study groups, and a task force of advocates, clinicians, and researchers since the year 2008. Each committee had co-chairs from both the US and another country. The process finally concluded with the publication of DSM 5 on the morning of May 18, 2013 at the 166 th Annual Meeting of the APA at San Francisco. THE DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS 5 DSM 5 does not claim to be the ultimate or the final word in classification of mental disorders.

Section I is the basics which includes introduction, instruction on how to use the manual, and a chapter on cautionary statement for forensic use of DSM 5. Section II of the manual lists diagnostic criteria and codes of 22 diagnostic categories. DSM 5 has a single axis format and considers the relevance of age, gender, and culture. The manual lists ICD 9 Clinical Modification (CM) and ICD 10 CM codes for each diagnostic category. The APA is scheduled to switch over to ICD 10 CM codes from October 01, 2014. Section III is on the emerging measures and models. It covers self-rated cross-cutting symptom measures for adults, children, and adolescents between age 6 and 17 years; WHO Disability Assessment Schedule 2, an alternative DSM 5 model for personality disorders; and a list of conditions for further study. When viewed in totality, DSM 5 is not very much different from DSM IV. All major categories of mental disorders in Section II of the DSM 5 have listed specifiers and precise instructions about coding the severity of the disorder on a five point scale, where applicable. The new approach combines the former axes I, II, and III into a single axis. Psychosocial and contextual factors (formerly axis IV) and disability (formerly axis V) have to be rated separately. The DSM 5 specifies that psychosocial and contextual factors be rated on the Z code of ICD 10 CM or V codes of ICD 9 CM. It has replaced the GAF with the World Health Organization's Disability Assessment Schedule 2 (WHODAS 2). DSM IV did not provide clear guidelines to categorize such cases. Panic attacks in a patient of depression invited two comorbid diagnoses. The longitudinal course specifiers of schizophrenia in DSM IV or DSM IV TR did not clearly differentiate symptom free patient of schizophrenia from a patient experiencing florid symptoms. An anxious adolescent was often a diagnostic dilemma. The dimensional approach of DSM 5 rates magnitude of individual symptoms.

The dimensional model helps to grade and chart the course of the disorder. It thus differentiates normal from the abnormal. It includes published American and global information on mental disorders. Where needed, the DSM committees planned and conducted specifically designed studies in academic institutions and in clinical practice. The new knowledge thus gained during the planning of the manual from clinical practice within and outside the US was integrated in the text of the DSM 5. It also amalgamates manuals like the ICD and the Disability Assessment Schedules, while providing an avenue for the individual clinician to study cultural components of mental illness, worldwide. Critics of the DSM 5 feel that the state of current knowledge does not justify a new classification. They doubt whether the current understanding of psychopathology or the phenomenology augment clinician's competence to make a clinical diagnoses by objective parameters or measurable criteria. Dr. Thomas Insel voiced that Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) would be a better diagnostic tool. Later, the then APA President elect Dr. Jeffrey Liebermann, and Dr. Thomas Insel issued a joint statement as they noted that criteria that are important for clinical practice may not be sufficient for researchers. It has retained the categorical model of DSM IV in large proportion. Some clinical conditions have been recategorized. Dimensions of individual clinical condition are added. We will have to understand and apply them in our clinical practice ahead of meaningful debates on their relevance. Available from:Unmasking forensic diagnosis. Available from. Available from:Can clinicians recognize DSM-IV personality disorders from Five-Factor Model descriptions of patient cases. Fink M, Taylor MA. Issues for DSM-V: The medical diagnostic model. American Psychiatric Association. Available from. Mental illness stigma: Concepts, consequences and initiatives to reduce stigmas. American Psychiatric Association.

Available from:Nussbaum AM. Arligton: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2013. American Psychiatric Association. Available from. Homology BLAST (Basic Local Alignment Search Tool) BLAST (Stand-alone) BLAST Link (BLink) Conserved Domain Database (CDD) Conserved Domain Search Service (CD Search) Genome ProtMap HomoloGene Protein Clusters All Homology Resources. Proteins BioSystems BLAST (Basic Local Alignment Search Tool) BLAST (Stand-alone) BLAST Link (BLink) Conserved Domain Database (CDD) Conserved Domain Search Service (CD Search) E-Utilities ProSplign Protein Clusters Protein Database Reference Sequence (RefSeq) All Proteins Resources. Sequence Analysis BLAST (Basic Local Alignment Search Tool) BLAST (Stand-alone) BLAST Link (BLink) Conserved Domain Search Service (CD Search) Genome ProtMap Genome Workbench Influenza Virus Primer-BLAST ProSplign Splign All Sequence Analysis Resources. Taxonomy Taxonomy Taxonomy Browser Taxonomy Common Tree All Taxonomy Resources. Variation Database of Genomic Structural Variation (dbVar) Database of Genotypes and Phenotypes (dbGaP) Database of Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (dbSNP) SNP Submission Tool All Variation Resources.Find out why. Country of Publication: United States Publisher: Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association, c2013. Description: xliv, 947 p. I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of Use Shareable Link Use the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more. Copy URL Often called the “bible of mental illness,” the DSM provides criteria for making psychiatric diagnoses and, in turn, a common language with which to discuss mental disorders. The most recent edition is DSM?5, which was released in May 2013. Mental disorder refers to “ a health condition characteriz ed by signi?cant dysf unction in an individua l’ s cognitions, em otions, or behavi ors that re?

ects a disturbance in the psycholog- ical, biological, or developmental pr ocesses underlying mental functioning” (American Psychiatric Associa tion, 2012). Mental health pro- fessionals diagnose individuals based on the symptoms that they report experiencing and the signs of disorders with which they present. Whereas the DSM aid s professionals in u nder- standing, diag nosing, and communic ating about mental disorders through its pro vision of explicit d iagnostic crite ria and an o?cial classi?cation system, no information abou t treatmen t is included. Planning and Development of the DSM-5 ?e DSM-5 is the latest inc arnation of the manual in an evolving pro cess that began w ith ?e Encyclopedia of Clinical Psychology, First Edition. Mo re recently, the DSM-IV was published in 1994 and in 2000 a “text revision ” of the man ual ( DSM-IV-TR )w a sp u b l i s h e d,w h i c hs l i g h t l y updated some of the content in the manual. Empirical research and extensive li terature reviews have guided re?nements in the diag- nostic manual and its continued develo pment. In 1999, an initial DSM-5 research planning conference was convened, which set research priorities in an e?ort to expand the scienti?c basis for mental health diagnoses and classi?- cation. Between 2006 and 2008, the diagnostic workgroups were ass embled, comprising more than 160 clinicians and researchers fro m psy- chiatry, psy chology, social work, psy chiatric nursing, pediatrics, and neurology. In an e? ort to ensure broad perspectives were consid- ered, the work-group members represen ted more than 90 academic and mental health institutions throughout the world, and approx- imately 30% of t he work-group memb ers were fro m countries o ther than the U nit ed States. Addition ally, more than 300 advis- ers, known for their expertise in a particular.

Each of the di agnostic wor kgroups con- ducted extensive literatur e reviews, performed secondary data an alyses, solici ted feedback from colleagues and professionals, and ulti- mately developed the new diag nostic criteria in their respective areas. Several general prin- ciples were established to guide the decisions made by the wor kgroups about w hat should be included, remo ved, or cha nged in the revised manual. ?ese principles included consid- eration of the clinical utility of and research evidence for the revisions, continuity wi th the previou s edition of the m anual when possible, and no predetermined constraints on the amount of change permitt ed. Addi- tionally, the workgroups were aske d to clarify the boundaries between mental disorders, Early dr a?s of th e DSM-5 were opened f o rp u b l i cr e v i e w;t h eA m e r i c a nP s y c h i a t r i c Association designated three time periods during which the general public was invited to comment o n the new diagnostic cri teria. Field trials were conducted between 2010 and 2011 to test the new diagnost ic criteria for feasibility, clinical utility, reliability, and validity in both academic and nonacademic clinical practice settings. ?e r elease of the ?n al, app roved DSM-5 occurred in May 2013. ?e manual is expected to become a living document, re?ecti ng more frequent rev isions. ?us, the traditional Roman numeral was dropped from the title so that fu ture cha nges prio r to the manual’ s next com plete revision will be sig- ni?ed as DSM-5.1, DSM-5.2,a n ds of o r t h. Although far fro m perfect, the DSM functions as one of the most comprehensive and thor- ough manuals used to classify and diagnose mental disorders. ?e only major competitor in the developed world is the W orld Health Organization ’ s Internationa l Classi ?cation o f Diseases ( ICD ), which is in its tenth edition. ?e ICD is also currently undergoing revision a n di se x p e c t e dt ob ew i d e l yc o m p a t i b l ew i t h the DSM-5.

Genera l Feat ure s of the DS M-5 Section 1 o f the DSM-5 pro vides an introduc- tion and includ es information on how to use the manual. In Section 2, mental disorders are grouped into 22 diagnos tic categories. ?e struc tural organizati on of the DSM-5 is revise d from the prev ious edition, such that the individual disorders within a category are arranged in a developmental lifestyle fashion, with disorders typically associated with child- hood presented ?rst. Additionally, the order o ft h ed i a g n o s t i cc a t e g o r i e si sd e s i g n e dt o closely position diagnostic areas that seem to be related to one anot her, re?ecting advanc es in the scienti?c understanding of mental disor- ders. Section 3 includes conditions that require further research, assessment measures, cultural formulations, a g lossary, and a descr iption of an alternative model for d iagnosing pers onality disorder (see below). According to the DSM-5,i n d i v i d u a l sw i t h a particular diagnosis (e.g., major depressive disorder) need not exhibit identical features, although they sh ould prese nt with certain ca r- dinal symptoms (e.g., either depres sed mood or anhedonia). In the DSM-5,t h ec r i t e r i af o r many mental disorders are polythetic, mean- ing that an individual must meet a minim um number of symptoms to be diagnose d, but not all symptoms need be present (e.g., ?ve of nine sy mptoms must b e prese nt to diag nose depression). U se of polythetic criteria allows for some variati on among people with t he same disorder. However, individuals with the same disorder should have a similar history in some areas, for example a typical age of o nset, prognosis, and common comorbid c onditions. Consistent with previous edition s, the DSM-5 primarily relies on a categorical ap proach to diagnosis so that individuals either have the disorder (i.e.

, they meet criteria, they are diagnosable) or they do not (despite possibly having several s ymptoms but not enough to meet formal criteria). Notab ly abs ent fr om the DSM-5 is the use of the multiaxial system. Clinical disorders, personality disorders, and general medical conditions (formerly Axes I, II, an d III) are combined into a non axial documentation, with separat e notation s for psych osocial and contextual factors (formerly A xis IV) and disability (formerly Axis V). Regarding the former Axis V, the Global Assessmen t of Funct ioning s cal e has be en repla ced wi th the W orld Health Organizatio n Disability Assess- ment Schedule (WHODAS) whic h provides a global measure of disability. ?e WHOD AS is based on the International Classi?cation o f Funct ioning, Disa bility a nd Healt h (ICF) f or use across al l of medicine and h ealth care, and i sl o c a t e di nS e c t i o n3o ft h e DSM-5 with other An added feature in the DSM-5 i st h em o r ep r o m i n e n tu s eo f dimensional and crosscutting assessments. Dimensional assessments are pro posed for inclusion within some existing catego rical diagnoses, with the goal of providing addi- tional information that assists c linicians in assessment, treatment planning, and treatment monitoring. For exam ple, among individuals with schizoph renia, the severi ty of the prima ry symptoms of psychosis, inc luding delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, abno rmal psychomotor behavior, and negative symp- toms, may be rated on a dimensional ?ve-point scale ranging fr om 0 ( not present )t o4( present and seve re ). Cross-cutting assessment refers to the measu rement of import ant clinical are as that may be relevant beyond speci?c diagnos- tic areas, such as depres sed moo d, anxiety, substance use, or sleep problems. Suc h clinical areas may be rel evant for prognosi s, treatment p l a n n i n g,a s s e s s m e n to fo u t c o m e,o rr e.Clinical Disorders ?

e bulk of the DSM-5 comprises 22 broad clusters under which speci?c clinical disorders are subsumed. Examples of clinical disorders include bipolar disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, schizophrenia, and anorexia nervosa. In gener al, many of t he main di agnost ic cate- gories remain largely the same in the DSM-5 as in the previ ous edition of the manu al, although some new categories were created (e.g., Neurodevelopmental Disorder s; Bipolar and Related Disorders, Gender Dysphoria, Obsessive-Compulsive and Relat ed Disorders). Other modi?cations included moving sev- eral disorders from one catego ry to another, renaming some disorders, and deleting some disorders that had questionable relia bility or validity, re?ecting advances in empirical research and unde rstanding of mental -health disorders. For examp le, disorders that were formally classi?ed as “Dementia” are now renamed “Mild Neur ocognitive Disorder” or “Major N eurocognitive Disorder,” with sub- types of each identifying the etiology of the cognitive dysfunction (e.g., Major N eurocog- nitive Disorder due to Alzheimer’ s Diseas e). Consisten t with the man ual’ s new dimen- sional approach, Asperg er’ s disorder has been subsumed in a new diagnosis called “ Autism Spectrum Disorder,” which allows for dimen- s i o n a lr a t i n g so fs e v e r i t yo ft h es y m p t o m so n a continuum from mi ld to severe. In add ition, there are a few newly classi?ed disorders, such as Hoarding Disorder, which fal ls under the “Obsessive-C ompulsive and Related Dis or- ders” categ ory. Finally, some clinical disorders such as Non-Suicidal Self Inj ury Disorder and Persistent Com plex Bereavement Dis- order are included in the manual under a section designated for disorders that require further study (in the previously mentioned Section 3 ). Personality Di sorders Personality disorders are in?exible a nd maladaptive patterns of behavior re?

ecting extreme variants of normal personality traits that have become rigid and dysfunctional. Ten prototypical personality disorders wer e listed in the DSM-IV-TR,i n c l u d i n gt h ea n t i s o c i a l, avoidant, borderline, dependent, histrionic, narcissistic, obsessive-compulsive, para noid, schizoid, a nd schizotypal per sonality diso r- ders. Substantial comorb idity and overlap exist among the pers onality dis orders. ?e DSM-5 Personality an d Personality Dis orders Work Group proposed subst antial changes in the way clinicians assess and diagnose personality pathology. H owever, a?er extensive debate and critique of the proposed changes, the DSM-5 included the 10 standard personality disorders in the main text o f the manual an d relega ted most of the p roposed cha nges to the la tter portion of the m anual so tha t the chang es can be studied m ore fully. Nonetheless, the pro- posal is available for current use if the clinician wishes. ?e workgroup initially recommended the previous 10 categories be red uced to six spe- ci?c personality disorder types, including One additional type, Personality Disorder T rait Speci?ed (PDTS) was suggested t o replace the former Personality Disorder N ot Oth- erwise Speci?ed diagnosis. ?e wo rkgroup also proposed tha t the DSM-5 criteria should incorporate a dimensional appr oach, such that in order to be diagnosed with a personality disorder an individual must hav e impairment in two areas of pe rsonality f unctioning: self and interpers onal. Impairment of self is related to identity and self-directedness, whereas interpersonal impairment is related to o ne’ s capacity for empa thy and intimacy. L evels of impairment in these areas are supposed to be rated along a c ontinuum from 0 ( healthy functio nin g )t o4( extreme impairmen t ). Finally, the workgroup pro posed and de?ned ?ve broad person ality trait do mains, inc luding negative a?

ectivity, detachment, antagonism, disinhibition versus compulsivity, and psy- choticism. Within these ?ve br oad domains are component trait facets, which vary by disorder. It was sugg ested that th e personality do main in DSM-5 be used to describe th e personalit y characteri stics of all patie nts, whether o r not they have a clinically signi?cant personality disorder. ?e workgroup ’s full proposal is a v a i l a b l ef o ru s ei nS e c t i o n3. In response to these suggested major changes to the Personality Disorders ca tegory in DSM-5, there has been substantial and some- times contentious debate in the literature regarding many of thes e modi?cat ions. Most of the criticisms center around questions a bout the empirical basis for many of the chan ges, the perceived ar bitrariness of the change s, and the perceived limited clinical utility and unnecessar y complexity of t he changes (e.g., Livesley, 2012; Zimmerman, 2011). Although no major change s in the personality disorders were formally adopted in DSM-5,i ti sl i k e l yt h a tm a n yo f the propose d changes will b e revisited in future editio ns of the man ual especially as the researc h base contin ues to clarify whe ther the proposed modi?cations increase diagnostic utility and validity. Mult ic ultu ra l and D iver sit y Issu es in the DSM-5 During the DSM-5 developmen t process, study groups on gender and cross-cultur al issues and on lifespan developmental ap proaches were included. In addition, there was an e?ort to include international experts in the revision process, as well as a variety of clinical settings during the ?e ld trials, to ensu re a wide pool of information on cultural facto rs in psy- chopatholog y and diagnosi s. Such information is necessar y to help clinicians and re searchers diagnose individuals outside the majority cul- ture. ?e DSM-5 provides an up dated version of the Outli ne for Cultural Formulat ion that was introduced in DSM-IV.?

i sO u t l i n ep r o - vides a fr amework for assess ing informati on a b o u tt h er o l eo fc u l t u r ei na ni n d i v i d u a l ’ s mental health p roblems. Speci?cally, the Out- line calls for a thorough assessment of ?ve content areas, incl uding the cultural identity of the individual, cultural conceptualization s of distress, psychosocia l stressors and cul- tural features of vulnerability a nd resiliency, cultural features of the relatio nship between clinician and client, and an o verall cultural assessment. ?e DSM-5 Outline also p resents a n approach to ass essment using t he Cultural Formulation I nterview (CFI). ?e CFI con- tains a set of 16 questions that clinician s may use during a clinical intake assessment to elicit information from a client abou t the possible impact of culture on di.It is des igned to be used rega rdless of th e client’s cultural background or the clin ician’ s cultural backgr ound or theo retical orien tation. ?e CFI emphasize s four main domains: (a) cultural de?nition of the problem; (b) cultural percepti ons of cause, context, an d support; Although culture p urportedly refers to all aspects of one’s mem bership in diverse social groups (e.g., ethnic groups, the military, faith communities), the CFI appears to em phasize t h ei m p a c to fr a c ea n de t h n i c i t yo no n e ’ s understanding of one’ s di?culties. Additional modules have been d eveloped for pop ulations with unique needs, such as children, older adults, and immigrants and refugees, which can be used to supplement the standard CFI. D e s p i t es o m ea p p a r e n ti m p r o v e m e n t s,t h e relevance of criteria for some mental disorders among older adults is addressed in a limited fashion in the DSM-5.F i n a l l y,aG l o s s a r yo f Cultural Concepts of Distress is located in the Appendix, and includes informa tion about culture-bound syndromes, the cultures in which they occur, and a description of the main psychopathological features.

Limitations and Criticisms of DSM-5 Although an ticipated to im prove u pon its predecesso rs and pro vide a state-o f-the-art manual for the diagnosis and classi?cation of mental disorders, the DSM-5 has received some signi?cant criticisms. A major criticism is the dramatic exp ansion of the bound aries of some categories, for exam ple attention de?ci t hyper- activity disorder (ADHD), potentially resulting in numerous “false positive ” diagnoses. A related controver sy regards the ex pansion in the number of diagnosable mental disorders, potentially p romp ting unneces sary stigmatiza- tion, intervention, and expense. Indeed, across editions of the DS M, more mental disorders have been included in each successive versio n as new disorders have been de?ned to ?ll in the gaps between existing disorders. Such pro- liferation of ne wly minted dis orders raises t he question whether they truly represent distinct forms of psychopatholo gy or are merely vari- ations of existing disorders. Other criticisms include the American Psychiatric As sociation ’ s lack of inclusiveness and transparenc y in the revision process; the adoption of a dimen- sional approach to diagnosis without su?cient empirical support; the use of newly developed dimensional and cross-cutting assessments in the absence of evidence of reliability and valid- ity; and limited attention to careful risk-bene?t analyses rega rding many of the changes. For a more complete disc ussion of strengths an d criticisms of the DSM-5, interested readers are referred to Frances an d Widiger (2012), Kamens (2012), and Widiger a nd Gore (2012). SEE ALSO: D e?nition of Men tal Disorder; DS M-I and DSM-II; DSM-III and DSM-III-R; DSM-IV; Medical Model of Men tal Disorders; Rei?cation References American Psychiatric Association. (2012). De?nition of a mental disorder.